Complete the Statement With Either a Writer Writes or a Reader Reads. To Enjoy or Be Entertained.

Person using written words to communicate

This article is about writers who use words. For writers of music, run into Composer.

Author

Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, a Spanish writer depicted with the tools of the trade.
Occupation
Action sectors	Literature
Clarification
Competencies	Linguistic communication proficiency, Grammar, Literacy
Fields of employment	Mass Media, Social Media
Related jobs	Announcer novelist poet columnist

A writer is a person who uses written words in different writing styles and techniques to communicate ideas. Writers produce different forms of literary art and creative writing such as novels, short stories, books, verse, travelogues, plays, screenplays, teleplays, songs, and essays also every bit other reports and news manufactures that may be of involvement to the general public. Writers' texts are published beyond a wide range of media. Skilled writers who are able to utilise linguistic communication to limited ideas well, ofttimes contribute significantly to the cultural content of a order.^[i]

The term "writer" is likewise used elsewhere in the arts and music – such every bit songwriter or a screenwriter – but equally a standalone "writer" normally refers to the creation of written language. Some writers work from an oral tradition.

Writers can produce material beyond a number of genres, fictional or not-fictional. Other writers use multiple media – for example, graphics or analogy – to enhance the communication of their ideas. Another recent demand has been created by ceremonious and government readers for the work of non-fictional technical writers, whose skills create understandable, interpretive documents of a applied or scientific kind. Some writers may use images (drawing, painting, graphics) or multimedia to augment their writing. In rare instances, creative writers are able to communicate their ideas via music as well every bit words.^[2]

Every bit well every bit producing their own written works, writers oftentimes write on how they write (that is, the process they use);^[3] why they write (that is, their motivation);^[4] and as well comment on the work of other writers (criticism).^[5] Writers work professionally or non-professionally, that is, for payment or without payment and may be paid either in advance (or on acceptance), or merely after their work is published. Payment is only one of the motivations of writers and many are not paid for their work.

The term writer is ofttimes used as a synonym of author, although the latter term has a somewhat broader significant and is used to convey legal responsibleness for a piece of writing, fifty-fifty if its limerick is bearding, unknown or collaborative.

Types [edit]

Writers choose from a range of literary genres to express their ideas. Most writing can exist adapted for apply in another medium. For example, a author's work may be read privately or recited or performed in a play or film. Satire for instance, may exist written as a poem, an essay, a flick, a comic play, or a function of journalism. The author of a letter may include elements of criticism, biography, or journalism.

Many writers work across genres. The genre sets the parameters just all kinds of creative adaptation take been attempted: novel to motion-picture show; poem to play; history to musical. Writers may begin their career in one genre and change to another. For example, historian William Dalrymple began in the genre of travel literature and also writes equally a journalist. Many writers have produced both fiction and non-fiction works and others write in a genre that crosses the two. For example, writers of historical romances, such as Georgette Heyer, create characters and stories fix in historical periods. In this genre, the accuracy of the history and the level of factual detail in the work both tend to be debated. Some writers write both creative fiction and serious analysis, sometimes using other names to separate their work. Dorothy Sayers, for case, wrote crime fiction just was besides a playwright, essayist, translator, and critic.

Literary and creative [edit]

Poet [edit]

Main article: Poet

I Volition Write

He had done for her all that a man could,
And some might say, more a man should,
Then was ever a flame and so recklessly blown out
Or a last goodbye so negligent as this?
'I will write to you,' she muttered briefly,
Tilting her cheek for a polite kiss;
Then walked away, nor always turned about. ...

Long letters written and mailed in her own head –
In that location are no mails in a city of the dead.

Robert Graves^[6]

Poets make maximum use of the linguistic communication to attain an emotional and sensory effect besides as a cognitive one. To create these effects, they use rhyme and rhythm and they also employ the properties of words with a range of other techniques such equally alliteration and assonance. A common topic is dear and its vicissitudes. Shakespeare's best-known love story Romeo and Juliet, for example, written in a diversity of poetic forms, has been performed in innumerable theaters and made into at least eight cinematic versions.^[7] John Donne is another poet renowned for his beloved verse.

Novelist [edit]

A novelist is an author or writer of novels, though often novelists too write in other genres of both fiction and non-fiction. Some novelists are professional novelists, thus make a living writing novels and other fiction, while others aspire to support themselves in this way or write as an avocation. Almost novelists struggle to have their debut novel published, but once published they often go on to be published, although very few get literary celebrities, thus gaining prestige or a considerable income from their work.

Every novel worthy of the name is similar some other planet, whether large or small, which has its own laws only as it has its own flora and animate being. Thus, Faulkner'due south technique is certainly the best one with which to paint Faulkner'southward globe, and Kafka'southward nightmare has produced its own myths that make it catching. Benjamin Constant, Stendhal, Eugène Fromentin, Jacques Rivière, Radiguet, all used unlike techniques, took unlike liberties, and set themselves different tasks.
François Mauriac, novelist^[viii]

Satirist [edit]

A satirist uses wit to ridicule the shortcomings of society or individuals, with the intent of revealing stupidity. Usually, the subject of the satire is a gimmicky upshot such every bit ineffective political decisions or politicians, although human vices such equally greed are also a common and prevalent subject. Philosopher Voltaire wrote a satire about optimism chosen Candide, which was after turned into an opera, and many well known lyricists wrote for it. At that place are elements of Absurdism in Candide, simply as at that place are in the work of contemporary satirist Barry Humphries, who writes comic satire for his character Matriarch Edna Everage to perform on stage.

Satirists use different techniques such as irony, sarcasm, and hyperbole to make their point and they cull from the full range of genres – the satire may exist in the form of prose or poetry or dialogue in a film, for example. One of the nearly well-known satirists is Jonathan Swift who wrote the iv-volume work Gulliver'due south Travels and many other satires, including A Modest Proposal and The Battle of the Books.

Information technology is amazing to me that ... our age is almost wholly illiterate and has hardly produced ane writer upon any subject area.
Jonathan Swift, satirist (1704)^[9]

Short story writer [edit]

A short story writer is a writer of short stories, works of fiction that can be read in a unmarried sitting.

Performative [edit]

Librettist [edit]

Libretti (the plural of libretto) are the texts for musical works such as operas. The Venetian poet and librettist Lorenzo Da Ponte, for example, wrote the libretto for some of Mozart'due south greatest operas. Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa were Italian librettists who wrote for Giacomo Puccini. Most opera composers collaborate with a librettist merely unusually, Richard Wagner wrote both the music and the libretti for his works himself.

Chi son? Sono poeta. Che cosa faccio? Scrivo. Eastward come up vivo? Vivo. ("Who am I? I'1000 a poet. What do I practise? I write. And how practice I live? I live.")
Rodolpho, in Puccini'southward La bohème ^[x]

Lyricist [edit]

Commonly writing in verses and choruses, a lyricist specializes in writing lyrics, the words that accompany or underscore a song or opera. Lyricists also write the words for songs. In the example of Tom Lehrer, these were satirical. Lyricist Noël Coward, who wrote musicals and songs such as "Mad Dogs and Englishmen" and the recited song "I Went to a Marvellous Party", also wrote plays and films and performed on stage and screen besides. Writers of lyrics, such as these 2, adapt other writers' work as well as create entirely original parts.

Making lyrics feel natural, sit on music in such a way that you don't experience the effort of the author, so that they shine and bubble and rise and fall, is very, very hard to do.
Stephen Sondheim, lyricist^[11]

Playwright [edit]

A playwright writes plays which may or may not be performed on a stage by actors. A play's narrative is driven by dialogue. Like novelists, playwrights ordinarily explore a theme by showing how people respond to a set of circumstances. As writers, playwrights must make the language and the dialogue succeed in terms of the characters who speak the lines besides as in the play as a whole. Since most plays are performed, rather than read privately, the playwright has to produce a text that works in spoken form and can also concur an audience's attention over the period of the performance. Plays tell "a story the audience should care almost", so writers have to cut anything that worked against that.^[12] Plays may exist written in prose or verse. Shakespeare wrote plays in iambic pentameter every bit does Mike Bartlett in his play Rex Charles III (2014).^[12]

Playwrights also suit or re-write other works, such every bit plays written before or literary works originally in some other genre. Famous playwrights such every bit Henrik Ibsen or Anton Chekhov accept had their works adjusted several times. The plays of early Greek playwrights Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschylus are nonetheless performed. Adaptations of a playwright's piece of work may be honest to the original or creatively interpreted. If the writers' purpose in re-writing the play is to make a film, they will have to prepare a screenplay. Shakespeare'due south plays, for example, while still regularly performed in the original course, are oftentimes adapted and abridged, especially for the cinema. An example of a artistic modern accommodation of a play that all the same used the original writer's words, is Baz Luhrmann'south version of Romeo and Juliet. The amendment of the proper name to Romeo + Juliet indicates to the audience that the version will be unlike from the original. Tom Stoppard's play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead is a play inspired by Shakespeare's Hamlet that takes 2 of Shakespeare's nearly minor characters and creates a new play in which they are the protagonists.

Thespian : It's what the actors do best. They have to exploit any talent is given to them, and their talent is dying. They tin die heroically, comically, ironically, slowly, suddenly, disgustingly, charmingly or from a cracking tiptop.
Tom Stoppard, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Expressionless (Act Two)^[13]

Screenwriter [edit]

Screenwriters write a screenplay – or script – that provides the words for media productions such every bit films, telly series and video games. Screenwriters may start their careers by writing the screenplay speculatively; that is, they write a script with no advance payment, solicitation or contract. On the other hand, they may be employed or commissioned to adapt the work of a playwright or novelist or other author. Self-employed writers who are paid by contract to write are known equally freelancers and screenwriters oftentimes work under this type of organisation.

Screenwriters, playwrights and other writers are inspired by the classic themes and frequently use similar and familiar plot devices to explore them. For example, in Shakespeare'southward Hamlet is a "play within a play", which the hero uses to demonstrate the king'south guilt. Village hives the co-performance of the actors to set upward the play as a matter "wherein I'll grab the conscience of the king".^[14] teleplay author Joe Menosky deploys the same "play within a play" device in an episode of the science fiction television series Star Trek: Voyager. The bronze-age playwright/hero enlists the back up of a Star Trek crew member to create a play that volition convince the ruler (or "patron" as he is chosen), of the futility of war.^[xv]

Speechwriter [edit]

A speechwriter prepares the text for a speech to be given before a group or crowd on a specific occasion and for a specific purpose. They are often intended to be persuasive or inspiring, such every bit the speeches given by skilled orators like Cicero; charismatic or influential political leaders like Nelson Mandela; or for utilise in a courtroom of law or parliament. The writer of the speech may be the person intended to evangelize it, or it might be prepared past a person hired for the task on behalf of someone else. Such is the case when speechwriters are employed by many senior-level elected officials and executives in both government and individual sectors.

Interpretive and academic [edit]

Biographer [edit]

Biographers write an account of another person'south life. Richard Ellmann (1918–1987), for case, was an eminent and award-winning biographer whose piece of work focused on the Irish writers James Joyce, William Butler Yeats, and Oscar Wilde. For the Wilde biography, he won the 1989 Pulitzer Prize for Biography.

Critic [edit]

Critics consider and assess the extent to which a piece of work succeeds in its purpose. The piece of work nether consideration may be literary, theatrical, musical, artistic, or architectural. In assessing the success of a work, the critic takes account of why it was done – for instance, why a text was written, for whom, in what style, and under what circumstances. Later making such an cess, critics write and publish their evaluation, calculation the value of their scholarship and thinking to substantiate whatever stance. The theory of criticism is an surface area of study in itself: a skilful critic understands and is able to incorporate the theory behind the work they are evaluating into their assessment.^[16] Some critics are already writers in another genre. For example, they might be novelists or essayists. Influential and respected writer/critics include the art critic Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867) and the literary critic James Forest (born 1965), both of whom take books published containing collections of their criticism. Some critics are poor writers and produce just superficial or unsubstantiated work. Hence, while anyone can be an uninformed critic, the notable characteristics of a proficient critic are understanding, insight, and an ability to write well.

We tin can claim with at least as much accuracy equally a well-known writer claims of his little books, that no paper would dare print what nosotros take to say. Are we going to be very cruel and abusive, then? By no ways: on the contrary, we are going to be impartial. We have no friends – that is a great matter – and no enemies.
Charles Baudelaire, introducing his Review of the Paris Salon of 1845^[17]

Editor [edit]

An editor prepares literary material for publication. The textile may be the editor'due south ain original piece of work just more usually, an editor works with the material of 1 or more other people. There are unlike types of editor. Copy editors format text to a detail style and/or right errors in grammer and spelling without changing the text substantively. On the other manus, an editor may advise or undertake meaning changes to a text to improve its readability, sense or construction. This latter type of editor can go so far every bit to excise some parts of the text, add together new parts, or restructure the whole. The piece of work of editors of aboriginal texts or manuscripts or collections of works results in differing editions. For case, there are many editions of Shakespeare's plays by notable editors who as well contribute original introductions to the resulting publication.^[18] Editors who piece of work on journals and newspapers have varying levels of responsibility for the text – they may write original fabric, in particular, editorials; select what is to be included from a range of items on offering; format the cloth; or check its accuracy.

Encyclopaedist [edit]

Encyclopaedists create organised bodies of knowledge. Denis Diderot (1713–1784) is renowned for his contributions to the Encyclopédie. The encyclopaedist Bernardino de Sahagún (1499–1590) was a Franciscan whose Historia full general de las cosas de Nueva España is a vast encyclopedia of Mesoamerican civilization, commonly referred to as the Florentine Codex, later on the Italian manuscript library which holds the best-preserved copy.

Essayist [edit]

Essayists write essays, which are original pieces of writing of moderate length in which the author makes a case in back up of an opinion. They are ordinarily in prose, but some writers accept used verse to present their statement.

Historian [edit]

A historian is a person who studies and writes about the by and is regarded as an dominance on it.^[19] The purpose of a historian is to employ historical analysis to create coherent narratives that explain "what happened" and "why or how it happened". Professional historians typically work in colleges and universities, archival centers, government agencies, museums, and as freelance writers and consultants.^[20] Edward Gibbon's six-volume History of the Decline and Autumn of the Roman Empire influenced the evolution of historiography.

Lexicographer [edit]

Writers who create dictionaries are called lexicographers. One of the most famous is Samuel Johnson (1709–1784), whose Dictionary of the English language Language was regarded not only as a great personal scholarly achievement simply was also a dictionary of such pre-eminence, that would have been referred to by such writers as Jane Austen.

Researcher/Scholar [edit]

Researchers and scholars who write about their discoveries and ideas sometimes have profound effects on society. Scientists and philosophers are good examples because their new ideas can revolutionise the fashion people think and how they behave. Three of the all-time known examples of such a revolutionary event are Nicolaus Copernicus, who wrote De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543); Charles Darwin, who wrote On the Origin of Species (1859); and Sigmund Freud, who wrote The Interpretation of Dreams (1899).

These three highly influential, and initially very controversial, works inverse the way people understood their identify in the world. Copernicus's heliocentric view of the cosmos displaced humans from their previously accepted place at the center of the universe; Darwin's evolutionary theory placed humans firmly inside, as opposed to above, the social club of manner; and Freud'due south ideas about the ability of the unconscious mind overcame the belief that humans were consciously in control of all their own actions.^[21]

Translator [edit]

Translators have the chore of finding some equivalence in another linguistic communication to a writer's significant, intention and style. Translators whose work has had very significant cultural outcome include Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf ibn Maṭar, who translated Elements from Greek into Arabic and Jean-François Champollion, who deciphered Egyptian hieroglyphs with the result that he could publish the first translation of the Rosetta Stone hieroglyphs in 1822. Difficulties with translation are exacerbated when words or phrases incorporate rhymes, rhythms, or puns; or when they have connotations in i language that are non-real in another. For case, the championship of Le Grand Meaulnes by Alain-Fournier is supposedly untranslatable because "no English describing word will convey all the shades of meaning that can be read into the uncomplicated [French] word 'grand' which takes on overtones as the story progresses."^[22] Translators have as well become a part of events where political figures who speak different languages come across to expect into the relations between countries or solve political conflicts. It is highly disquisitional for the translator to deliver the correct information as a drastic impact could be caused if any error occurred.

Even if translation is impossible – nosotros have no choice but to do it: to have the adjacent step and get-go translating. ... The translator'due south chore is to make u.s. either forget or else enjoy the departure.
Robert Dessaix, translator, author^[23]

Reportage [edit]

Blogger [edit]

Primary article: Blog

Writers of blogs, which have appeared on the Www since the 1990s, demand no say-so to be published. The contents of these brusk opinion pieces or "posts" course a commentary on issues of specific interest to readers who can use the same engineering science to interact with the author, with an immediacy hitherto impossible. The ability to link to other sites ways that some blog writers – and their writing – may go suddenly and unpredictably popular. Malala Yousafzai, a young Pakistani education activist, rose to prominence due to her web log for BBC.

A weblog writer is using the technology to create a bulletin that is in some ways like a newsletter and in other ways, similar a personal alphabetic character. "The greatest difference between a blog and a photocopied school newsletter, or an annual family alphabetic character photocopied and mailed to a hundred friends, is the potential audience and the increased potential for directly communication between audition members".^[24] Thus, as with other forms of letters the writer knows some of the readers, only i of the primary differences is that "some of the audience will be random" and "that presumably changes the way we [writers] write."^[24] It has been argued that blogs owe a debt to Renaissance essayist Michel de Montaigne, whose Essais ("attempts"), were published in 1580, considering Montaigne "wrote equally if he were chatting to his readers: but two friends, whiling away an afternoon in conversation".^[25]

Columnist [edit]

Columnists write regular parts for newspapers and other periodicals, commonly containing a lively and entertaining expression of stance. Some columnists take had collections of their best piece of work published equally a collection in a volume then that readers tin can re-read what would otherwise be no longer bachelor. Columns are quite short pieces of writing so columnists frequently write in other genres likewise. An example is the female columnist Elizabeth Farrelly, who too being a columnist, is also an architecture critic and author of books.

Diarist [edit]

Writers who record their experiences, thoughts, or emotions in a sequential class over a menstruation of fourth dimension in a diary are known as diarists. Their writings tin can provide valuable insights into historical periods, specific events, or individual personalities. Examples include Samuel Pepys (1633–1703), an English administrator and Member of Parliament, whose detailed private diary provides eyewitness accounts of events during the 17th century, most notably of the Great Burn of London. Anne Frank (1929–1945) was a 13-year-old Dutch girl whose diary from 1942 to 1944 records both her experiences as a persecuted Jew in Earth War II and an boyish dealing with intra-family relationships.

Announcer [edit]

Journalists write reports almost electric current events after investigating them and gathering data. Some journalists write reports about predictable or scheduled events such as social or political meetings. Others are investigative journalists who need to undertake considerable enquiry and assay in order to write an explanation or account of something complex that was hitherto unknown or not understood. Often investigative journalists are reporting criminal or corrupt activity which puts them at risk personally and means that what information technology is likely that attempts may be fabricated to attack or suppress what they write. An case is Bob Woodward, a journalist who investigated and wrote near criminal activities by the United states President.

Journalism ... is a public trust, a responsibility, to study the facts with context and abyss, to speak truth to power, to hold the feet of politicians and officials to the burn of exposure, to discomfort the comfortable, to comfort those who endure.
Geoffrey Barker, announcer.^[26]

Memoirist [edit]

Writers of memoirs produce accounts from the memories of their own lives, which are considered unusual, important, or scandalous enough to be of interest to general readers. Although meant to be factual, readers are alerted to the likelihood of some inaccuracies or bias towards an idiosyncratic perception by the option of genre. A memoir, for example, is allowed to have a much more selective set of experiences than an autobiography which is expected to be more complete and make a greater attempt at rest. Well-known memoirists include Frances Vane, Viscountess Vane, and Giacomo Casanova.

Utilitarian [edit]

Ghostwriter [edit]

Ghostwriters write for, or in the way of, someone else and so the credit goes to the person on whose behalf the writing is done.

Letter writer [edit]

Writers of letters use a reliable form of manual of messages betwixt individuals, and surviving sets of messages provide insight into the motivations, cultural contexts, and events in the lives of their writers. Peter Abelard (1079–1142), philosopher, logician, and theologian is known not only for the heresy contained in some of his work, and the punishment of having to burn his own book, but besides for the letters he wrote to Héloïse d'Argenteuil (1090?–1164).^[27]

The messages (or epistles) of Paul the Apostle were so influential that over the two thou years of Christian history, Paul became "second only to Jesus in influence and the corporeality of word and interpretation generated".^{[28] [29]}

Water damaged unpublished autograph manuscript page of Bligh's voyage in the launch of HMSBounty, from the transport to Tofua and from thence to Timor April 28 to June 14, 1789, after the Mutiny. Information technology contains notes used afterward as the ground for his study and all his subsequent narratives.

Report writer [edit]

Written report writers are people who assemble information, organise and document it then that it can be presented to some person or authority in a position to apply it as the basis of a decision. Well-written reports influence policies as well as decisions. For example, Florence Nightingale (1820–1910) wrote reports that were intended to issue administrative reform in matters apropos health in the army. She documented her experience in the Crimean State of war and showed her determination to see improvements: "...after six months of incredible industry she had put together and written with her own hand her Notes affecting the Wellness, Efficiency and Hospital Administration of the British Regular army. This boggling composition, filling more than eight hundred closely printed pages, laying down vast principles of far-reaching reform, discussing the minutest detail of a multitude of controversial subjects, containing an enormous mass of information of the most varied kinds – military, statistical, sanitary, architectural" became for a long time, the "leading dominance on the medical administration of armies".^{[xxx] [31]}

The logs and reports of Principal mariner William Bligh contributed to his being honourably acquitted at the court-martial inquiring into the loss of HMSBounty.

Scribe [edit]

Scribe in India taking instructions from a client

A scribe writes ideas and information on behalf of some other, sometimes copying from another document, sometimes from oral pedagogy on behalf of an illiterate person, sometimes transcribing from another medium such as a tape recording, autograph, or personal notes.

Beingness able to write was a rare achievement for over 500 years in Western Europe so monks who copied texts were scribes responsible for saving many texts from first times. The monasteries, where monks who knew how to read and write lived, provided an surroundings stable enough for writing. Irish monks, for instance, came to Europe in about 600 and "establish manuscripts in places like Tours and Toulouse" which they copied.^[32] The monastic writers also illustrated their books with highly skilled fine art work using gilt and rare colors.

Technical author [edit]

A technical writer prepares instructions or manuals, such as user guides or owner'due south manuals for users of equipment to follow. Technical writers also write unlike procedures for business, professional or domestic use. Since the purpose of technical writing is practical rather than creative, its nigh important quality is clarity. The technical writer, unlike the creative writer, is required to attach to the relevant style guide.

Process and methods [edit]

Writing process [edit]

Japanese impress depicting Thomas Carlyle'due south horror at his manuscript burning

There is a range of approaches that writers take to the task of writing. Each writer needs to notice their own process and most draw information technology as more or less a struggle.^[33] Sometimes writers have had the bad fortune to lose their work and have had to starting time again. Before the invention of photocopiers and electronic text storage, a writer's piece of work had to be stored on paper, which meant information technology was very susceptible to burn in particular. (In very before times, writers used vellum and dirt which were more robust materials.) Writers whose work was destroyed before completion include Fifty. L. Zamenhof, the inventor of Esperanto, whose years of work were thrown into the fire by his father because he was agape that "his son would be thought a spy working code".^[34] Essayist and historian Thomas Carlyle, lost the only copy of a manuscript for The French Revolution: A History when it was mistakenly thrown into the burn by a maid. He wrote information technology again from the beginning.^[35] Writers usually develop a personal schedule. Angus Wilson, for case, wrote for a number of hours every morning.^[36]

Writer's block is a relatively common experience amid writers, particularly professional writers, when for a period of time the author feels unable to write for reasons other than lack of skill or delivery.

Happy are they who don't doubt themselves and whose pens fly beyond the page
Gustave Flaubert writing to Louise Colet^[37]

Sole [edit]

Most writers write lonely – typically they are engaged in a solitary activity that requires them to struggle with both the concepts they are trying to limited and the best style to express it. This may mean choosing the best genre or genres as well as choosing the all-time words. Writers often develop idiosyncratic solutions to the trouble of finding the right words to put on a blank page or screen. "Didn't Somerset Maugham also write facing a bare wall? ... Goethe couldn't write a line if at that place was another person anywhere in the same house, or so he said at some bespeak."^[38]

Collaborative [edit]

Collaborative writing ways that other authors write and contribute to a part of writing. In this arroyo, information technology is highly likely the writers will collaborate on editing the part too. The more usual process is that the editing is done by an independent editor after the writer submits a draft version.

In some cases, such every bit that betwixt a librettist and composer, a author volition collaborate with some other artist on a creative work. One of the best known of these types of collaborations is that between Gilbert and Sullivan. Librettist Westward. Southward. Gilbert wrote the words for the comic operas created by the partnership.

Committee [edit]

Occasionally, a writing task is given to a committee of writers. The most best-known example is the task of translating the Bible into English, sponsored past King James VI of England in 1604 and accomplished past six committees, some in Cambridge and some in Oxford, who were allocated unlike sections of the text. The resulting Authorized King James Version, published in 1611, has been described as an "everlasting miracle" because its writers (that is, its Translators) sought to "concur themselves consciously poised between the claims of accessibility and beauty, plainness and richness, simplicity and majesty, the people and the male monarch", with the consequence that the linguistic communication communicates itself "in a way which is quite unaffected, neither literary nor bookish, non historical, nor reconstructionist, but transmitting a nearly incredible immediacy from ane end of human civilisation to another."^[39]

Multimedia [edit]

Some writers support the verbal part of their work with images or graphics that are an integral part of the way their ideas are communicated. William Blake is one of rare poets who created his own paintings and drawings equally integral parts of works such as his Songs of Innocence and of Experience. Cartoonists are writers whose work depends heavily on paw drawn imagery. Other writers, peculiarly writers for children, incorporate painting or drawing in more or less sophisticated ways. Shaun Tan, for example, is a writer who uses imagery extensively, sometimes combining fact, fiction and illustration, sometimes for a didactic purpose, sometimes on commission.^[forty] Children's writers Beatrix Potter, May Gibbs, and Theodor Seuss Geisel are as well known for their illustrations as for their texts.

Crowd sourced [edit]

Some writers contribute very pocket-size sections to a function of writing that cumulates as a result. This method is particularly suited to very large works, such equally dictionaries and encyclopaedias. The all-time known example of the one-time is the Oxford English language Dictionary, under the editorship of lexicographer James Murray, who was provided with the prolific and helpful contributions of Due west.C. Minor, at the time an inmate of a infirmary for the criminally insane.^[41]

The best known instance of the latter – an encyclopaedia that is crowdsourced – is Wikipedia, which relies on millions of writers and editors such every bit Simon Pulsifer^[42] worldwide.

Motivations [edit]

Writers have many different reasons for writing, among which is usually some combination of self-expression^[43] and recording facts, history or research results. The many physician writers, for case, have combined their observation and knowledge of the man condition with their desire to write and contributed many poems, plays, translations, essays and other texts. Some writers write extensively on their motivation and on the probable motivations of other writers. For example, George Orwell's essay "Why I Write" (1946) takes this as its subject. Every bit to "what constitutes success or failure to a author", it has been described equally "a complicated business, where the material rubs upwardly against the spiritual, and psychology plays a large part".^[44]

The moral I draw is that the writer should seek his reward in the pleasure of his piece of work and in release from the brunt of this thoughts; and, indifferent to naught else, care nothing for praise or censure, failure or success.
Westward. Somerset Maugham in The Moon and Sixpence (1919)^[45]

Command [edit]

Some writers are the authors of specific military orders whose clarity volition determine the issue of a battle. Amid the nearly controversial and unsuccessful was Lord Raglan'southward club at the Charge of the Light Brigade, which being vague and misinterpreted, led to defeat with many casualties.

Develop skill/explore ideas [edit]

Some writers utilise the writing task to develop their ain skill (in writing itself or in another area of knowledge) or explore an idea while they are producing a piece of writing. Philologist J. R. R. Tolkien, for example, created a new language for his fantasy books.

For me the individual act of poetry writing is songwriting, confessional, diary-keeping, speculation, problem-solving, storytelling, therapy, anger direction, craftsmanship, relaxation, concentration and spiritual take a chance all in i inexpensive package.
Stephen Fry, author, poet, playwright, screenwriter, journalist^[46]

Entertain [edit]

Some genres are a particularly advisable choice for writers whose chief purpose is to entertain. Among them are limericks, many comics and thrillers. Writers of children's literature seek to entertain children simply are besides usually mindful of the educative function of their work too.

I remember that I shall never meet
a billboard lovely as a tree;
Indeed, unless the billboards fall
I'll never run into a tree at all.
Ogden Nash, humorous poet, reworking a poem by Joyce Kilmer for comic effect.^[47]

Influence [edit]

Acrimony has motivated many writers, including Martin Luther, aroused at religious corruption, who wrote the Ninety-five Theses in 1517, to reform the church building, and Émile Zola (1840–1902) who wrote the public letter, J'Charge in 1898 to bring public attention to authorities injustice, every bit a consequence of which he had to abscond to England from his native France. Such writers have affected ideas, opinion or policy significantly.

Payment [edit]

Even though he is in love with the aforementioned adult female, Cyrano helps his inarticulate friend, Rageneau, to woo her by writing on his behalf ...

CYRANO: What hour is it now, Ragueneau?
RAGUENEAU (stopping brusque in the human activity of thrusting to look at the clock): Five minutes after six!...'I touch!' (He straightens himself): ...Oh! to write a ballade!
...
RAGUENEAU: Ten minutes after six.
CYRANO: (nervously seating himself at Ragueneau's table, and drawing some paper toward him): A pen!. . .
RAGUENEAU (giving him the one from behind his ear): Hither – a swan's quill.
...
CYRANO (taking up the pen, and motioning Ragueneau away): Hush! (To himself): I will write, fold information technology, give information technology her, and wing! (Throws down the pen): Coward! ...Merely strike me expressionless if I dare to speak to her, ...ay, even one single word! (To Ragueneau): What fourth dimension is it?
RAGUENEAU: A quarter subsequently six! ...
CYRANO (striking his breast): Ay-a single word of all those here! here! But writing, 'tis easier washed... (He takes up the pen): Go to, I will write it, that love-letter! Oh! I have writ it and rewrit information technology in my own mind so oftentimes that it lies in that location ready for pen and ink; and if I lay merely my soul by my alphabetic character-canvas, 'tis nix to practise but to re-create from it. (He writes. ...)
Edmond Rostand, Cyrano de Bergerac
Human action II, Scene ii, (3)^[48]

Writers may write a particular piece for payment (fifty-fifty if at other times, they write for another reason), such as when they are commissioned to create a new work, transcribe an original one, translate another writer's work, or write for someone who is illiterate or inarticulate. In some cases, writing has been the only way an individual could earn an income. Frances Trollope is an example of women who wrote to salvage herself and her family from penury, at a time when there were very few socially acceptable employment opportunities for them. Her book about her experiences in the United States, called Domestic Manners of the Americans became a corking success, "even though she was over 50 and had never written before in her life" after which "she continued to write hard, conveying this on almost entirely earlier breakfast".^[49] According to her author son Anthony Trollope "her books saved the family from ruin".^[49]

I write for two reasons; partly to make money and partly to win the respect of people whom I respect.
Due east. M. Forster, novelist, essayist, librettist^[50]

Teach [edit]

Aristotle, who was tutor to Alexander the Great, wrote to support his teaching. He wrote ii treatises for the immature prince: "On Monarchy", and "On Colonies"^[51] and his dialogues also appear to have been written either "as lecture notes or discussion papers for utilise in his philosophy school at the Athens Lyceum between 334 and 323 BC."^[51] They encompass both his 'scientific' writings (metaphysics, physics, biological science, meteorology, and astronomy, as well equally logic and argument) the 'not-scientific' works (poetry, oratory, ethics, and politics), and "major elements in traditional Greek and Roman instruction".^[51]

Writers of textbooks too use writing to teach and there are numerous instructional guides to writing itself. For example, many people volition find it necessary to make a speech "in the service of your company, church, civic club, political political party, or other organization" and and then, instructional writers have produced texts and guides for speechmaking.^[52]

Tell a story [edit]

Many writers utilise their skill to tell the story of their people, community or cultural tradition, specially one with a personal significance. Examples include Shmuel Yosef Agnon; Miguel Ángel Asturias; Doris Lessing; Toni Morrison; Isaac Bashevis Singer; and Patrick White. Writers such every bit Mario Vargas Llosa, Herta Müller, and Erich Maria Remarque write about the outcome of disharmonize, dispossession and war.

Seek a lover [edit]

Writers apply prose, poetry, and letters equally office of courtship rituals. Edmond Rostand's play Cyrano de Bergerac, written in verse, is about both the power of love and the power of the self-doubting writer/hero's writing talent.

[edit]

Pen names [edit]

Writers sometimes apply a pseudonym, otherwise known every bit a pen name or "nom de plume". The reasons they do this include to separate their writing from other work (or other types of writing) for which they are known; to raise the possibility of publication by reducing prejudice (such equally confronting women writers or writers of a particular race); to reduce personal run a risk (such as political risks from individuals, groups or states that disagree with them); or to make their proper noun better suit some other linguistic communication.

Examples of well-known writers who used a pen proper noun include: George Eliot (1819–1880), whose real name was Mary Anne (or Marian) Evans; George Orwell (1903–1950), whose existent name was Eric Blair; George Sand (1804–1876), whose real name was Lucile Aurore Dupin; Dr. Seuss (1904–1991), whose real name was Theodor Seuss Geisel; Stendhal (1783–1842), whose existent name was Marie-Henri Beyle and Mark Twain (1835–1910), whose real name was Samuel Langhorne Clemens.

Autonomously from the large numbers of works attributable only to "Bearding", in that location are a large number of writers who were once known and are now unknown. Efforts are fabricated to find and re-publish these writers' works. One example is the publication of books similar Japan As Seen and Described past Famous Writers (a 2010 reproduction of a pre-1923 publication) past "Anonymous".^[53] Another example is the founding of a Library and Study Centre for the Written report of Early English Women'southward Writing in Chawton, England.^[54]

Fictional writers [edit]

Some fictional writers are very well known considering of the forcefulness of their label by the real writer or the significance of their role as writer in the plot of a work. Examples of this type of fictional writer include Edward Casaubon, a fictional scholar in George Eliot'due south Middlemarch, and Edwin Reardon, a fictional writer in George Gissing's New Grub Street. Casaubon's efforts to complete an authoritative report affect the decisions taken by the protagonists in Eliot's novel and inspire meaning parts of the plot. In Gissing's piece of work, Reardon's efforts to produce loftier quality writing put him in conflict with another grapheme, who takes a more commercial approach. Robinson Crusoe is a fictional author who was originally credited past the real writer (Daniel Defoe) as beingness the author of the confessional messages in the work of the aforementioned name. Bridget Jones is a comparable fictional diarist created past writer Helen Fielding. Both works became well-known and pop; their protagonists and story were adult further through many adaptations, including film versions. Cyrano de Bergerac was a real writer who created a fictional character with his ain proper noun. The Sibylline Books, a drove of prophecies were supposed to have been purchased from the Cumaean Sibyl by the last king of Rome. Since they were consulted during periods of crunch, it could be said that they are a example of existent works created by a fictional writer.

Writers of sacred texts [edit]

Religious texts or scriptures are the texts which dissimilar religious traditions consider to be sacred, or of central importance to their religious tradition. Some religions and spiritual movements believe that their sacred texts are divinely or supernaturally revealed or inspired, while others take private authors.

Controversial writing [edit]

Skilled writers influence ideas and club, so in that location are many instances where a writer'due south work or opinion has been unwelcome and controversial. In some cases, they accept been persecuted or punished. Enlightened that their writing will cause controversy or put themselves and others into danger, some writers self-censor; or withhold their work from publication; or hide their manuscripts; or use another technique to preserve and protect their work. Two of the most famous examples are Leonardo da Vinci and Charles Darwin. Leonardo "had the habit of conversing with himself in his writings and of putting his thoughts into the clearest and nigh simple form". He used "left-handed or mirror writing" (a technique described every bit "so feature of him") to protect his scientific research from other readers.^[55] The fear of persecution, social disgrace, and beingness proved wrong are regarded equally contributing factors to Darwin'southward delaying the publication of his radical and influential work On the Origin of Species.

I of the results of controversies acquired by a writer'southward work is scandal, which is a negative public reaction that causes damage to reputation and depends on public outrage. It has been said that information technology is possible to scandalise the public because the public "wants to exist shocked in order to ostend its own sense of virtue".^[56] The scandal may be caused past what the writer wrote or by the style in which it was written. In either case, the content or the style is probable to have cleaved with tradition or expectation. Making such a divergence may in fact, exist part of the writer's intention or at least, part of the issue of introducing innovations into the genre in which they are working. For instance, novelist D H Lawrence challenged ideas of what was acceptable as well every bit what was expected in grade. These may be regarded as literary scandals, just as, in a different fashion, are the scandals involving writers who mislead the public about their identity, such as Norma Khouri or Helen Darville who, in deceiving the public, are considered to have committed fraud.

Writers may also cause the more than usual type of scandal – whereby the public is outraged by the opinions, behaviour or life of the individual (an feel not limited to writers). Poet Paul Verlaine outraged guild with his behaviour and handling of his married woman and child too as his lover. Among the many writers whose writing or life was affected by scandals are Oscar Wilde, Lord Byron, Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, and H. G. Wells. Ane of the near famously scandalous writers was the Marquis de Sade who offended the public both past his writings and past his behaviour.

Punishment [edit]

The consequence of scandal for a writer may be censorship or discrediting of the work, or social ostracism of its creator. In some instances, punishment, persecution, or prison follow. The list of journalists killed in Europe, list of journalists killed in the Us and the list of journalists killed in Russia are examples. Others include:

• The Balibo Five, a grouping of Australian telly journalists who were killed while attempting to report on Indonesian incursions into Portuguese Timor in 1975.
• Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906–1945), an influential theologian who wrote The Cost of Discipleship and was hanged for his resistance to Nazism.
• Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937), who wrote political theory and criticism and was imprisoned for this by the Italian Fascist regime.
• Günter Grass (1927–2015), whose verse form "What Must Be Said" led to his being declared persona non grata in Israel.
• Peter Greste (born 1965), a journalist who was imprisoned in Egypt for news reporting which was "damaging to national security."^[57]
• Primo Levi (1919–1987) who, amidst many Jews imprisoned during World War II, wrote an business relationship of his incarceration called If This Is a Man.
• Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), who was sentenced to imprisonment for heresy as a consequence of writing in support of the then controversial theory of heliocentrism, although the sentence was near immediately commuted to house arrest.
• Sima Qian (145 or 135 BC – 86 BC) who "successfully dedicated a vilified master from defamatory charges" and was given "the choice between castration or execution." He "became a eunuch and had to bury his own book ... in order to protect information technology from the regime."^[58]
• Salman Rushdie (built-in 1947), whose novel The Satanic Verses was banned and burned internationally afterward causing such a worldwide storm that a fatwā was issued against him. Though Rushdie survived, numerous others were killed in incidents connected to the novel.
• Roberto Saviano (born 1979), whose best-selling book Gomorrah provoked the Neapolitan Camorra, bellyaching Silvio Berlusconi and led to him receiving permanent police protection.
• Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (1918–2008), who used his experience of imprisonment as the subject of his writing in I Solar day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich and Cancer Ward—the latter, while legally published in the Soviet Union, had to gain the approving of the USSR Union of Writers.
• William Tyndale (c.  1494 – 1536), who was executed because he translated the Bible into English language.
• Simon Sheppard (born 1957) who was imprisoned in the UK for expressing controversial opinions on race and the Holocaust.

Protection and representation [edit]

The organisation Reporters Without Borders (likewise known by its French name: Reporters Sans Frontières) was gear up upwards to assist protect writers and advocate on their behalf.

The professional person and industrial interests of writers are represented by various national or regional guilds or unions. Examples include writers guilds in Commonwealth of australia and Great United kingdom and unions in Arabia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Canada, Republic of estonia, Hungary, Ireland, Moldova, Philippines, Poland, Québéc, Romania, Russia, Sudan, and Ukraine. In the United States, there is both a writers club and a National Writers Union.

Awards [edit]

There are many awards for writers whose writing has been adjudged excellent. Among them are the many literary awards given by private countries, such as the Prix Goncourt and the Pulitzer Prize, likewise as international awards such as the Nobel Prize in Literature. Russian writer Boris Pasternak (1890–1960), under pressure from his government, reluctantly declined the Nobel Prize that he won in 1958.

See as well [edit]

 Writing portal

• Academic publishing
• Hack writer
• Lists of writers
  • List of women writers
  • Listing of non-binary writers
• List of writers' conferences
  • Genre fiction
• Professional writing
• Website content writer
• Author'southward voice
• Betty Abah

References [edit]

1. ^ Magill, Frank N. (1974). Cyclopedia of World Authors. Vol. I, Ii, Three (revised ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Salem Press. pp. 1–1973. [A compilation of the bibliographies and brusque biographies of notable authors up to 1974.]
2. ^ Nobel prize winner Rabindranath Tagore is an example.
3. ^ Nicolson, Adam (2011). When God Spoke English: The Making of the King James Bible. London: Harper Press. ISBN978-0-00-743100-vii.
4. ^ See, for example, Will Blythe, ed. (c. 1998). Why I write: thoughts on the practice of fiction . Boston: Picayune, Brownish. ISBN0316102296.
5. ^ Jonathan Franzen, for example, criticised John Updike for being "exquisitely preoccupied with his own literary digestive processes ..." and his "lack of interest in the bigger postwar, postmodern, socio-technological picture" Franzen, Jonathan (six September 2013). "Franzen on Kraus: Footnote 89". The Paris Review (206). Retrieved 11 September 2013.
6. ^ Graves, Robert (1957). Poems Selected past Himself. Penguin Books. p. 204.
7. ^ 1936, 1954, 1955, 1966, 1968, 1978, 2013, 2014. IMDb listing.
8. ^ Le Marchand, Jean (Summer 1953). "Interviews: François Mauriac, The Art of Fiction No. ii". The Paris Review (2). Retrieved 3 May 2013.
9. ^ The Epistle Dedicatory of A Tale of a Tub. For text at Wikisource, encounter A Tale of a Tub
10. ^ Extract of Rodolpho's aria in Act I of La bohème
11. ^ Lipton, James (Bound 1997). "Interview: Stephen Sondheim, The Art of the Musical". The Paris Review. Spring 1997 (142). Retrieved 3 May 2013.
12. ^ ^{a b} Bartlett, Mike (18 November 2015). "Mike Bartlett on writing King Charles Three". Sydney Theatre Company Magazine. Sydney Theatre Visitor. Retrieved 6 April 2016.
13. ^ Stopppard, Tom (1967). Rosencrantz and Guildentern Are Dead. Faber and Faber. p. 75. ISBN0-571-08182-vii.
14. ^ The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark/Act two, (Human action Two, Sc.ii, line 609)
15. ^ Run across Flavour 6, Episode 22: "Muse", (Star Trek: Voyager)
16. ^ For example, run across Habib, M.A.R. (2005). A History of Literary Criticism and Theory . MA, USA; Oxford, U.k.; Victoria, Australia: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN978-0-631-23200-1.
17. ^ Baudelaire, Charles (1965). "The Salon of 1845". In Jonathan Mayne (editor and translator) (ed.). Baudelaire – Art in Paris 1845–1862: Reviews of Salons and other exhibitions. London: Phaidon Printing. p. one.
18. ^ Warner, Beverley Ellison (2012). Famous Introductions to Shakespeare'south Plays by the Notable Editors of the Eighteenth Century (1906). HardPress. ISBN978-1290807081.
19. ^ "Historian". Wordnetweb.princeton.edu. Retrieved 28 June 2008.
20. ^ Anthony Grafton and Robert B. Townsend, "The Parlous Paths of the Profession" Perspectives on History (Sept. 2008) online
21. ^ Weinert, Friedel (2009). Copernicus, Darwin and Freud: Revolutions in the History and Philosophy of Science. Malden, Massachusetts, USA; Oxford Britain: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN978-1-4051-8184-six.
22. ^ Gopnik, Adam (2007). "Introduction" to the English language translation of "Le Chiliad Meaulnes". London: Penguin Books. p. vii–viii. ISBN9780141441894.
23. ^ Dessaix, Robert (1998). "Dandenongs Gothic: On Translation" in (and then forth). Sydney: Pan MacMillan Australia Ltd. p. 307. ISBN0-7329-0943-0.
24. ^ ^{a b} Rettberg, Jill Walker (2008). Blogging. Cambridge UK; Malden, Massachusetts U.s.a.: Polity Press. p. 42. ISBN978-0-7456-4133-one.
25. ^ Bakewell, Sarah (12 November 2010). "What Bloggers Owe Montaigne". The Paris Review . Retrieved 3 May 2013.
26. ^ Barker and de Brito, controversially lamenting the preference for looks over experience in televised journalism. Geoffrey Barker (2 May 2013). "Switch off the Boob tube babes for some real news". The Age . Retrieved iii May 2013. Sam de Brito (2 May 2013). "Reality's seize with teeth worse than Barker". The Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved 3 May 2013.
27. ^ For text meet Messages of Abélard and Héloïse
28. ^ Steven R. Cartwright, ed. (2013). A Companion to St. Paul in the Middle Ages. Leiden The Netherlands: Koninklijke, Brill, NV. p. 1. ISBN978-xc-04-23672-ane.
29. ^ William S. Babcock, ed. (1990). Paul and the Legacies of Paul. Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press.
30. ^ Strachey, Lytton (1918). "Florence Nightingale – iii". Eminent Victorians (1981 ed.). Penguin Modern Classics. pp. 142–3. ISBN0-14-000649-4.
31. ^ Nightingale, Florence. Notes on matters affecting the health, efficiency, and hospital administration of the British army : founded importantly on the experience of the belatedly war. Adelaide Nutting historical nursing collection, AN 0054. London : Harrison and Sons, 1858. OCLC 7660327.
32. ^ Clark, Kenneth (1969). Civilisation. London: Penguin Books. pp. 28–29. ISBN0-14-016589-4.
33. ^ Older, Daniel José. "Writing Begins With Forgiveness: Why One of the Most Common Pieces of Writing Advice Is Wrong". Retrieved 11 September 2015.
34. ^ Bryson, Bill (1990). Mother Tongue – The English Language. Penguin Books. p. 185. ISBN978-0-14-014305-viii.
35. ^ Eliot, Charles William, Ed. "Introductory Notation" in The Harvard Classics, Vol. XXV, Role 3. New York: P.F. Collier & Son, 1909–14.
36. ^ Wilson, Angus (1957). "Interview with Angus Wilson". The Paris Review (Autumn-Winter No.17). Retrieved 5 December 2014.
37. ^ Plate caption to an image of a much-corrected page of Madame Bovary in the Bibliothèque Municipale de Rouen. In Brown, Frederick (2006). Flaubert: a biography. New York: Piffling, Brown and Co. ISBN9780316118781.
38. ^ Hughes, Ted (1995). "Ted Hughes: The Fine art of Poetry No. 71". The Paris Review. Spring (134). Retrieved 12 October 2013.
39. ^ Nicolson, Adam (2011). When God Spoke English: The Making of the Male monarch James Bible. London: Harper Press. ISBN978-0-00-743100-7. (p.240, 243)
40. ^ Tan, Shaun (2012). The Oopsatoreum. Sydney: Powerhouse Publishing. ISBN9781863171441.
41. ^ Winchester, Simon (1998). The Surgeon of Crowthorne: a tale of murder, madness and the beloved of words. London: Viking. ISBN0670878626.
42. ^ Grossman, Lev (16 December 2006). "Simon Pulsifer: The Duke of Data". Time. Archived from the original on 10 February 2007. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
43. ^ Peter Matthiessen, George Plimpton (1954). "William Styron, The Art of Fiction No. 5". The Paris Review (Spring). Retrieved 27 Dec 2014.
44. ^ Sullivan, Jane (27 December 2014). "JK Rowling on turning failure into success". The Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved 27 December 2014.
45. ^ Maugham, Somerset (1999). "ii". The Moon and Sixpence. Vintage. p. eight. ISBN9780099284765.
46. ^ Fry, Stephen (2007). The Ode Less Travelled – Unlocking the Poet Within. Arrow Books. pp. xii. ISBN978-0-09-950934-ix.
47. ^ Nash, Ogden, "Vocal of the Open Route", The Confront Is Familiar (Garden City Publishing, 1941), p. 21
48. ^ "Rostand, Cyrano de Bergerac: Human action II, Scene 2, (3)".
49. ^ ^{a b} Moore, Katherine (1974). Victorian Wives. London, New York: Allison & Busby. pp. 65–71. ISBN0-85031-634-0.
50. ^ Quoted in the introduction to the author in the 1962 edition of E.M. Forster (1927). Aspects of the Novel. Penguin.
51. ^ ^{a b c} R.G. Tanner (2000). "Aristotle'southward Works: The Possible Origins of the Alexandria Drove". In Roy MacLeod (ed.). The Library of Alexandria. Cairo, Arab republic of egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 79–91. ISBN977-424-710-8.
52. ^ Dowis, Richard (2000). The Lost Art of the Great Spoken communication: How to Write One : How to Deliver It. New York: AMA publications. p. two. ISBN0-8144-7054-8.
53. ^ Anonymous (2010). Nippon As Seen and Described past Famous Writers (published pre-1923). BiblioLife. ISBN9781142479084.
54. ^ "Chawton House Library | Abode to early English language women's writing".
55. ^ "Leonardo'southward Manuscripts" in Leonardo de Vinci (Authoritative work, published in Italian republic past Istituto Geografico De Agostini, in conjunction with exhibition of Leonardo's piece of work in Milan in 1938 (re-edited English translation) ed.). New York: Reynal and Company, in association with William Morris and Company. p. 157.
56. ^ Wilson, Colin; Damon Wilson (2011). Scandal!: An Explosive Exposé of the Affairs, Corruption and Power Struggles of the Rich and Famous. Random House.
57. ^ "Arab republic of egypt crunch: Al-Jazeera journalists arrested in Cairo". BBC News. xxx December 2013.
58. ^ Battles, Matthew (2003). Library – An Unquiet History. London: William Heinemann. ISBN0-434-00887-7. p40

External links [edit]

• Media related to Writers at Wikimedia Commons

Texts on Wikisource:

• Letters of Abélard and Héloïse
• Luther'southward Ninety-V Theses
• Hamlet
• Gulliver's Travels
• A Modest Proposal
• The Boxing of the Books
• Songs of Innocence
• Songs of Experience
• The History of the Decline and Autumn of the Roman Empire
• Poems
• J'accuse...!
• Writer:E. M. Forster

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writer

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